Main actors
3. EU Institutions explained
European Parliament
Representing almost 500 million EU citizens, the European Parliament shares legislative power with the Council. It is the only directly-elected body of the EU. Sessions of the full Parliament are mainly held in Strasbourg, France, with mini-sessions in Brussels, Belgium. MEPs have offices in both cities.
The members of the Parliament sit in political groups – they are not organised by nationality, but by political affiliation. The President, elected among the MEPs for two and a half years at a time, oversees all the work of the Parliament and represents the Parliament in all external relations.
The Parliament’s power has increased considerably over the years. In many fields, co-decision procedure means Parliament may block proposed legislation, although in some sensitive areas it may only give an opinion to the Council. Parliament has the final say on many areas of expenditure in the EU’s annual budget.
The European Parliament has, to some extent, the task of supervising the 27 European Commissioners who are appointed by the Council of Ministers then approved by Parliament. Commissioners, whose job is to oversee the various activities of the European Union, appear regularly before parliamentary committees. Parliament has the power to dismiss the Commission en masse, but not individual commissioners. This power has never been used, although it has been threatened on a number of occasions. In 1999, the Commission led by Jacques Santer resigned collectively before Parliament exercised this power, following allegations of mismanagement, and in particular nepotism, within the Commission. And in October 2004, the new Commission President, José Manuel Barroso, decided to withdraw his proposed team to prevent its potential defeat by the Parliament. MEPs objected to the choice of Rocco Buttiglione as Commissioner for Justice, Freedom and Security, among others. A revised college was proposed and Parliament voted to accept it on 18 November 2004.
Members of the European Parliament (MEPs), all 751 of them, are directly elected every five years, in simultaneous national elections. Representation is roughly proportional to national population, from 96 MEPs for Germany to 6 for Malta. These numbers were reduced under the Lisbon Treaty.
EP Committees, which usually meet in Brussels, cover specific subject fields and prepare Parliament’s opinions in detail. In principle, all meetings of committees and the full Parliament are held in public, although some sections of committee meetings are occasionally held in camera.
Council of the European Union
The Council is the main decision-making body of the European Union and shares legislative power with the European Parliament. Representing the member states, ministers or officials from national government departments meet to debate specific subjects. Officially, it is known as the ‘Council of the European Union’, but it is sometimes called the ‘Council of Ministers’.
Council meetings are held in private, but there has been an attempt in the last few years to increase transparency in decision-making and make some meetings public. All Council deliberations under the co-decision procedure are open to the public.
The Council meets at least twice every six month. Most meetings are held in Brussels; in April, June and October, however, it sits in Luxembourg. Very occasionally it may meet elsewhere, for example in the margins of UN or WTO meetings.
Council configurations: The Council meets in nine different configurations depending on the subjects being examined. All the work of the Council is prepared and coordinated by the Permanent Representatives Committee (COREPER), made up of the permanent representatives of the member states working in Brussels and of their assistants. The configurations:
- General Affairs and External Relations
- Economic and Financial Affairs
- Justice and Home Affairs
- Competitiveness
- Transport, Telecommunications and Energy
- Agriculture and Fisheries
- Environment
- Education, Youth and Culture
- Employment, Social Policy, Health and Consumer Affairs
The Presidency: The Council is presided over for a period of six months by each member state in turn, in accordance with a pre-established rota. The presidency plays a vital part in the organisation of the work of the institution. It is the driving force in the legislative and decision-making process, working out and negotiating compromises between member states, when necessary. The presidency organises and chairs all meetings.
European Council is a meeting of the heads of state or government of the member states and the president of the Commission. It defines the general political guidelines of the European Union. The meetings of the European Council usually take place in Brussels, in the Justus Lipsius building.
The Secretary-General of the Council and the High Representative for the Common Foreign and Security Policy assists the Council in foreign policy matters. He contributes to the formulation, preparation and implementation of European policy decisions. He acts on behalf of the Council in conducting political dialogue with third parties. The current Secretary-General is Javier Solana.
The Lisbon Treaty spells several major changes for the Council. It now becomes a full EU institution and gains a permanent president, elected for 2.5 years. This mandate may be renewed once. The treaty also establishes the combined role of EU High Representative for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy / Commission Vice-President – to finally answer the ‘Kissinger question’ of who to call on foreign policy issues. High Representative Ashton has broad responsibility for all EU external relations, acting as ‘supreme coordinator’ of other portfolios: Trade, Enlargement, Development and Humanitarian Aid. With a single voice, backed up by a new European External Action Service, the EU’s work is more coherent on the world stage. The new system improves coordination between the Commission and Council and reduces the gap between 'high and low politics'.
European Commission
The Commission of 27 member states consists of 26 Commissioners plus the President who are responsible for a diverse range of portfolios, such as enterprise and industry, transport, institutional relations and communication strategy, agricultural and rural development, and more. They are each assisted by a cabinet (private office) and a department (or Directorate-General) of officials, most of whom are based in Brussels.
Commissioners sit for a five-year term. The Commission President is nominated by member states, on the basis of consensus, and then approved by Parliament. The President-elect and governments then agree on the remaining nominees. The College is approved as a body by the European Parliament, following ‘approval hearings’ before parliamentary committees. At present, there is one Commissioner from each 27 member states, but until 2004, the largest member states had two.
The European Commission is the only EU institution that can initiate legislation. However, before doing this it must consult with interest groups and experts to ensure that the Union’s citizens are being properly served. It meets regularly with committees of experts from national governments and their agencies, and also meets with European-level representative organisations from a wide range of sectors, including industry, public services, trade unions, consumer groups, regional organisations and NGOs. Many of these groups maintain a presence in Brussels to lobby the Commission, as they know that the best time to influence new legislation is before it becomes an official proposal.
Once EU legislation has been adopted, the Commission is required to make sure it is implemented properly and fully – and within any time limits set – in all member states. The Commission (or member states) may bring actions before the Court of Justice against member states for failure to fulfill their obligations under EU law.
The Directorates-General are the Commission’s departments handling the practical work relating to each policy sector. The Commission is assisted by a civil service made up of 36 DGs, mainly based in Brussels and Luxembourg. The largest DGs may have a thousand civil servants working for a particular sector.
Other EU institutions
Court of Justice
Based in Luxembourg, the Court of Justice of the European Communities is made up of one judge from each EU country, assisted by eight advocates-general. It is completely independent and ensures that EU law is understood and interpreted in the same way in all member states across the European Union. In particular, courts in the member states are required to refer questions to the Court for rulings when national and EU legislation conflict. It is also called upon to settle disputes between the EU’s different institutions and member states.
Significant rulings by the Court in recent years have reinforced the European dimension of laws on the environment, consumer protection, employment, and the free movement of goods and services across borders within the Union. The Court is therefore playing an increasingly important role as more and more legislation passes through the system and impacts on EU citizens.
Any European citizen or organisation may bring a case before the Court if it concerns a legal act which directly affects them. The Court of First Instance was established in 1989.
Court of Auditors
Also based in Luxembourg, the main task of the European Court of Auditors is to make sure the EU spends its money in the most efficient way possible. According to its website: "The Court examines whether financial operations have been properly recorded, legally and regularly executed and managed so as to ensure economy, efficiency and effectiveness."
It boasts of being the ‘financial conscience’ of the Union, as it keeps track of the EU budget and ensures that it has been managed properly by the European Commission. On the basis of the Court of Auditors' reports, the European Parliament gives the Commission final discharge for the execution of each annual budget.
European Ombudsman
The European Ombudsman is appointed by the European Parliament to hear complaints of misadministration by the European institutions. Any EU citizen, company or organisation based in the EU may ask the Ombudsman to investigate their specific case. The Ombudsman is based in Strasbourg.
Financial bodies
European Central Bank
The European Central Bank (ECB), based in Frankfurt, is the central bank for all euro area countries. It sets interest rates and is responsible for monetary policy. Its governing council consists of the governors of all national central banks in the euro area, plus the executive board. The board is made up of the Bank’s president, vice-president and four other members. Board members are nominated by the Council, and are responsible, in particular, for setting interest rates at their monthly meetings.
European Investment Bank
The EIB is based in Luxembourg and provides loans and guarantees to the EU’s less developed regions. It also funds investment programmes for businesses to make them more competitive.
Advisory bodies
European Economic and Social Committee
The European Economic and Social Committee (ESC or EESC) is sometimes known unofficially as ‘Ecosoc’ (but do not confuse this with the UN’s Economic and Social Council which is officially known by the acronym Ecosoc), and is a consultative/advisory body made up of various interest groups. Its over 200 members are drawn from European organisations, such as consumer groups, farmers' and trade unions, as well as from employers’ associations. Member states each have a number of members (in proportion to their population). During the EU’s legislative process, the Commission is required to ask for the Committee’s opinion on its proposals for new legislation in many areas. As with the Committee of the Regions, the EESC’s opinions have no binding weight, but it examines around two-thirds of the proposals passing through the legislature.
Committee of the Regions
The Committee of the Regions (CoR) is the second ‘official’ advisory body to the Commission, the European Parliament and Council, representing local and regional communities at EU level, and bringing the Union closer to its citizens. CoR aims to represent the voice of local and regional government to the EU institutions. Its 344 members are drawn from municipal and regional authorities in the member states. While the ESC has been around since the Community was set up in 1957 (Treaty of Rome), CoR was only instituted in 1994 following the 1992 Maastricht Treaty. The Committee is required to be consulted on any legislative proposal that could have regional consequences, especially in areas such as health, education, transport, employment and social policy.
As with the Economic and Social Committee, CoR opinions are not binding.
Inter-institutional bodies
European Anti-Fraud Office OLAF
OLAF was set up initially as a unit within the Commission to fight fraud in the implementation of EU programmes and policies. It now operates as an independent office. It aims to work closely with national anti-fraud and anti-corruption agencies, since much of the EU budget is actually administered by national agencies.
Office for Official Publications of the European Communities is the publishing house of the institutions and other bodies of the European Union. It is responsible for producing and distributing EU publications on all media and by all means.
European Personnel Selection Office EPSO The EPSO is a central department organising “competitions” to recruite and choose personnel for all EU institutions.
Agencies of the EU
Community Agencies are bodies governed by European public law, but are distinct from the actual Institutions and have their own legal personality. They are set up accomplish a very specific, technical, scientific or managerial task.
Common Foreign and Security Policy agencies
At present the CFSP agencies are the European Defence Agency, European Union Institute for Security Studies and the European Union Satellite Centre.
Police and judicial cooperation agencies
At present these agencies are the European Judicial Cooperation Unit (EUROJUST), European Police College (CEPOL) and the European Police Office (EUROPOL).